Glossary

Acid reflux

happens when some of the stomach’s acid content flows into the oesophagus. Heartburn is the burning feeling a person gets when they have acid reflux. Frequent acid reflux may mean a person has GERD.

Acne

It is a skin condition that causes pimples mainly on the face, forehead, chest, shoulders and upper back. It happens when your hair follicles become plugged with oil and dead skin cells. It causes whiteheads, blackheads or pimples. Acne is most common among teenagers, though it affects people of all ages.  The spots and bumps heal slowly, and when one begins to disappear, others seem to crop up. The severity of acne can cause emotional distress and scar the skin. The earlier you start treatment, the lower your risk of such problems. There are a variety of causes, including genetics, fluctuating hormone levels, stress, high humidity and using oily or greasy personal care products. Acne commonly affects teenagers but can occur at any age.

Adaptive immune system

Adaptive immunity involves specialised immune cells and antibodies that attack and destroy foreign invaders and can prevent disease in the future by remembering what those substances look like and mounting a new immune response. We are not born with adaptive immunity. It is acquired during life as a result of exposure to specific antigens.

Agonist

A substance that binds to a receptor inside a cell or on its surface causes the same action as the substance that usually attaches to the receptor.

Antagonist

 A substance that stops the action or effect of another substance.

Alzheimer’s disease

is a progressive brain disorder that causes the brain to shrink (atrophy) and brain cells to die. It slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability to carry out the simplest tasks. In most people with the disease — those with the late-onset type symptoms first appear in their mid-60s. Early-onset Alzheimer’s occurs between a person’s 30s and mid-60s and is very rare. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia among older adults.

Anti-tumour

A substance that stops or slows down abnormal cell growth. It inhibits the maturation and rapid increase of malignant cells.

Antiviral

An antiviral is a substance that fights against viruses and inhibits the growth and spread of viruses that cause disease. They reduce the symptoms of a viral infection and shorten the length of your illness.

Anxiety

It is a normal emotion. It’s your brain’s way of reacting to stress and alerting you of potential danger. Everyone feels anxious now and then. For example, you may worry when faced with a problem at work or before taking a test. Occasional anxiety is normal. Anxiety disorders are a group of mental illnesses that cause constant and overwhelming anxiety and fear.  Excessive anxiety can make you avoid work, school, family get-togethers, and other social situations that might trigger or worsen your symptoms.

Anxiolytic

Anxiolytic is a substance used to treat symptoms of anxiety, such as feelings of fear, dread, uneasiness, and muscle tightness, that may occur as a reaction to stress. Most anxiolytics block the action of certain chemicals in the nervous system. Also called antianxiety agent and anxiolytic agent.

Apoptosis

Apoptosis is a type of cell death in which a series of molecular steps in a cell lead to its death. This is one method the body uses to eliminate unneeded or abnormal cells. The process of apoptosis may be blocked in cancer cells.

Arteriosclerosis 

Arteriosclerosis occurs when the blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients from the heart to the rest of the body (arteries) become thick and stiff — sometimes restricting blood flow to the organs and tissues. Healthy arteries are flexible and elastic. But over time, the walls in the arteries can harden, a condition commonly called hardening of the arteries.

Arthritis

is swelling, stiffness, tenderness and pain of one or more joints. Arthritis isn’t a single condition, and there are several different types. The main symptoms of arthritis are joint pain and stiffness, which worsen with age. The most common types of arthritis are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a specific type of arteriosclerosis. The build-up of fats, cholesterol and other substances in and on the artery walls that obstruct blood flow. This buildup is called plaque. The plaque can cause arteries to narrow, blocking blood flow. The plaque can also burst, leading to a blood clot. Plaques may rupture, causing acute occlusion of the artery by a clot. Atherosclerosis often has no symptoms until a plaque ruptures or the build-up is severe enough to block blood flow.

Bacteria

are single-celled organisms that are pretty much everywhere: in the ground, in the ocean, on your hands and in your gut. While some are harmful, others are not — and some are beneficial to human health. Humans often live in symbiosis with bacteria, maintaining a mutually beneficial relationship without knowing it.

Blemishes

Skin blemishes are any mark, spot, discolouration, or flaw that appears on the skin. Blemishes on the face may be unsightly and emotionally upsetting, but most are benign and not life-threatening. Some blemishes, however, can signal skin cancer.

Body Mass Index

The body mass index (BMI) is a measure that uses your height and weight to determine if your weight is healthy. The BMI calculation divides an adult’s weight in kilograms by their height in square metres. Accurate assessments of obesity are essential, as being overweight or obese significantly increases your risk of various medical conditions, including type 2 diabetes, heart disease and cancer. 

Depression

is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness, loss of interest and anger. It interferes with a person’s everyday activities. It affects how you feel, think and behave and can lead to various emotional and physical problems.

Cardiovascular endurance

measures how well you can do exercises that involve your whole body at moderate to high intensity for an extended time. It refers to the ability of the heart and lungs to deliver oxygen to working muscles during continuous physical activity, which is an important indicator of physical health. Improving your cardiovascular endurance can make it easier to carry out your daily tasks.

Chelators

Chelators work by binding to metals in the bloodstream. They circulate through the blood, binding to metals. This way, chelators collect all the heavy metals into a compound filtered through the kidneys and released in urine.

Cholesterol

is not inherently bad. It is a waxy substance in your blood that your body needs to build healthy cells and make vitamins and other hormones. But high levels of cholesterol can develop fatty deposits in your blood vessels. Eventually, these deposits grow, making it difficult for enough blood to flow through your arteries, leading to heart disease. Sometimes, those deposits can break suddenly and form a clot that causes a heart attack or stroke. Cholesterol comes from two sources. Your liver makes all the cholesterol you need. The remainder of the cholesterol in your body comes from foods from animals. For example, meat, poultry and dairy products all contain dietary cholesterol. Those same foods are high in saturated and trans fats. These fats cause your liver to make more cholesterol than it otherwise would. For some people, this added production means they go from an average cholesterol level to one that’s unhealthy. Some tropical oils – such as palm oil, palm kernel oil and coconut oil – contain saturated fat that can increase bad cholesterol. These oils are often found in baked goods. High cholesterol can be inherited, but it’s often the result of unhealthy lifestyle choices, which make it preventable and treatable. A healthy diet, regular exercise and medication can help reduce high cholesterol.

Chronic venous insufficiency

occurs when your leg veins don’t allow blood to flow back to your heart. Usually, the valves in your veins ensure that blood flows toward your heart. But when these valves don’t work well, blood can also flow backwards. This can cause blood to pool in your legs.

Cognitive

relating to the mental process involved in thinking, reasoning, knowing, learning, remembering and understanding things. 

Colic

is an attack of crying and what appears to be abdominal pain in young infancy, which may be caused by a growing digestive system with muscles that spasm, gas, hormones that cause crankiness, a developing nervous system, or an early form of childhood migraine.

Constipation

Chronic constipation is infrequent bowel movements or difficult passage of stools that persists for several weeks or longer.  Symptoms include fewer bowel movements, trouble having a bowel movement, hard or small stools, inability to release all stools & belly bloating.

Cornea

The transparent vascular tissue covers the eye’s front portion. It acts as a structural barrier and allows light to enter the inside while protecting the eyes against infections. The cornea’s primary function is to refract or bend light. The cornea is responsible for focusing most of the light that enters the eye.  It covers the pupil (the opening at the centre of the eye), iris (the coloured part of the eye), and anterior chamber (the fluid-filled inside of the eye). 

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are known as Killer T cells, CD8+ T cells, or CTLs. They are crucial for immune defence against intracellular pathogens and tumour surveillance. They are called “cytotoxic” because they possess special molecular weapons that enable them to directly attack and destroy other cells displaying targets they recognise, such as a virus-infected or cancerous cell. They show their effects mainly by two mechanisms, cytolytic attack on target cells or secretion of interleukins and cytokines. 

C-reactive protein (CRP).

CRP is a protein made by your liver and found in your bloodstream. It rises dramatically in circulation concentration in response to trauma, inflammation, and infection. It decreases just as rapidly with the resolution of the condition. Inflammation is your body’s way of protecting your tissues if you’ve been injured or have an infection. It can cause pain, redness, and swelling in the injured or affected area. Some autoimmune disorders and chronic diseases can also cause inflammation.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

This degenerative brain disorder leads to dementia and death. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease symptoms can be similar to those of other dementia-like brain disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease. But Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease usually progresses much more rapidly. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is marked by rapid mental deterioration, usually within a few months. Early signs and symptoms typically include personality changes, memory loss, impaired thinking, blurred vision or blindness, insomnia, incoordination, difficulty speaking, difficulty swallowing, and sudden and jerky movements.

COX

Cyclooxygenase (COX) is an enzyme (protein) that helps create two essential chemicals in the body: prostaglandin and thromboxane. There are two varieties of this enzyme in the human body: COX-1 forms part of the enzymes normally necessary for supporting healthy gastric mucosa. Its suppression can result in gastric erosions. COX-2 is an inducible enzyme liberated in sites of inflammation; blocking it can cause pain relief.

COX-1

Cyclooxygenase-1 are enzymes that speed up the production of certain chemical messengers, called prostaglandins, in various areas of the body, such as the stomach, kidneys, and sites of inflammation. In the stomach gut, prostaglandins promote the production of a protective natural mucus lining. They also interact with specific cells responsible for inflammation and other functions.

COX-2

Cyclooxygenase-2 are enzymes that speed up the production of certain chemical messengers, called prostaglandins, crucial in promoting inflammation. When cox-2 activity is blocked, inflammation is reduced and pain relieved. Unlike cox-1, cox-2 is active only at the site of inflammation, not in the stomach.

Cyclic mastalgia

Cyclic mastalgia is breast pain related to the hormonal variations associated with the menstrual cycle, which affect how your breasts feel over a month. The pain is often described as a dull, heavy ache, not focused on any specific spot. It affects both breasts and the armpit areas.

Cytokines

A protein that triggers an effect on the immune system. Some stimulate the immune system, and others slow it down. Too many cytokines can lead to a cytokine storm, excess inflammation & autoimmune disease. Cytokines are crucial for coordinating cell-mediated immune response and play a critical role in modulating the immune system.

Cytokine storm

A severe immune reaction in which the immune system releases too many cytokines (Inflammatory signals) into the blood. Cytokines play an essential role in normal immune responses, but having a large amount of them released into the body can be harmful. Autoimmune disease, infections, and sepsis can trigger a cytokine storm.

Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CD8+)

CD8+ T cells (often called cytotoxic T lymphocytes, or CTLs) are essential for immune defence against intracellular pathogens, including viruses and bacteria, and tumour surveillance. Killer T cells are called “cytotoxic” or “cytolytic” because they possess special molecular weapons that enable them to directly attack and destroy other cells displaying targets they recognise, for example, a virus-infected cell or even a cancerous cell.

Dermatitis

Dermatitis is a general term that describes a common skin irritation. It has many causes and forms and usually involves itchy, dry skin or a rash. Or it might cause the skin to blister, ooze, crust, or flake off. Examples include atopic dermatitis (eczema), contact dermatitis (an itchy rash caused by direct contact with a substance or an allergic reaction to it.) and seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff). These conditions cause red rashes, dry skin and itchiness, among other symptoms.

Diabetes type 2

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic medical condition in which the levels of sugar, or glucose, build up in your bloodstream. It is a lifelong disease that keeps your body from using insulin as it should. People with type 2 diabetes have insulin resistance. Middle-aged or older people are most likely to get this kind of diabetes. It used to be called adult-onset diabetes. But type 2 diabetes also affects kids and teens, mainly because of childhood obesity.

Diarrhoea

Characterized by abnormally loose or watery stools. Most cases of diarrhoea are due to bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Digestive system disorders can also cause chronic diarrhoea.

Dropsy 

is a build-up of fluid (fluid retention) in the body, which causes the affected tissue to become swollen. It is now called oedema. The swelling can occur in one part of the body or maybe more general, depending on the cause. Oedema can be most easily seen around the ankles after you’ve been standing (peripheral oedema). After lying down for a while, your eyes may look puffy and swollen. In severe cases, oedema can also collect in your lungs and make you short of breath.

Dyspepsia

or indigestion is a feeling of burning, pain, or discomfort in the digestive tract. It can result from a medical condition or lifestyle factors. Indigestion describes specific symptoms, such as abdominal pain and feeling fullness soon after you start eating, rather than a particular disease. Indigestion can also be a symptom of various digestive disorders.

Eczema

Is also called atopic dermatitis & causes your skin to become inflamed, dry, red, itchy, cracked, bumpy & rough. Eczema damages the skin barrier function (the “glue” of your skin). It makes your skin more sensitive and more prone to infection and dryness.  Some types can also cause blisters. Eczema doesn’t harm your body. It doesn’t mean that your skin is dirty or infected and is not contagious.  In the word “dermatitis,” “derm” means “skin”, and “itis” means “inflammation.” The term, as a whole, means “inflammation of the skin.” “Eczema” originates from the Greek word “ekzein”, which means to “boil over” or “break out.”

Endothelium

The endothelium is a thin membrane that lines the inside of the heart and blood vessels. Endothelial cells release substances that control vascular relaxation and contraction as well as enzymes that control blood clotting, immune function and platelet (a colourless substance in the blood) adhesion.

Estrogen / Oestrogen

is a sex hormone responsible for developing, regulating, and maintaining female characteristics of the body, the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. Three major endogenous estrogens have estrogenic hormonal activity: estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3).

Fibroids

are abnormal growths in or around a woman’s uterus. Sometimes these tumours become quite large and cause severe abdominal pain and heavy periods. In other cases, they cause no signs or symptoms at all. The growths are typically benign or noncancerous.

GERD

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) occurs when stomach acid repeatedly flows back into the tube connecting your mouth and stomach (oesophagus). This backwash (acid reflux) can irritate the lining of your oesophagus. Many people experience acid reflux from time to time. However, acid reflux repeatedly happens over time; it can cause GERD.

Gingivitis

is a common and mild form of gum disease that causes irritation, redness and swelling (inflammation) of your gingiva, the part of your gum around the base of your teeth. Gingivitis can lead to more severe gum disease called periodontitis and tooth loss. The most common cause of gingivitis is poor oral hygiene and bacterial invasion. Good oral health habits, such as brushing at least twice a day, flossing daily and getting regular dental checkups, can help prevent and reverse gingivitis. 

Gout

is a painful form of arthritis caused by uric acid crystals that form in and around the joints. It is characterised by sudden, severe attacks of pain, swelling, redness and tenderness in one or more joints, most often in the big toe. An episode of gout can occur suddenly, often waking you up in the middle of the night with the sensation that your big toe is on fire. The affected joint is hot, swollen, and so tender that even the weight of the bedsheet on it may seem intolerable.

Haemorrhoids

Piles are swollen veins in your anus and lower rectum, similar to varicose veins. Haemorrhoids can develop inside the rectum (internal haemorrhoids) or under the skin around the anus (external haemorrhoids).

Hepatitis

is inflammation of the liver. Liver inflammation can be caused by several viruses (viral hepatitis), chemicals, drugs, alcohol, certain genetic disorders or by an overactive immune system mistakenly attacks the liver, called autoimmune hepatitis. Depending on its course, hepatitis can be acute, flares up suddenly and then goes away, or chronic, a long-term condition usually producing more subtle symptoms and progressive liver damage.

Hepatitis B virus

Hepatitis B virus is a serious liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). For some people, the infection becomes chronic. Having chronic hepatitis B increases your risk of developing liver failure, liver cancer or cirrhosis — a condition that permanently scars of the liver.

Herpes

results from infection with the herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes. HSV-1 tends to affect your mouth and face. HSV-2 tends to affect your genital area. It causes sores or blisters in or around the mouth or genitals, alongside other symptoms. Once a person contracts herpes, it’s a lifelong condition. Symptoms usually include sores that last for up to 10 days. 

Hyperthyroidism

(overactive thyroid) occurs when your thyroid gland produces and releases too much of the hormone thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism can accelerate your body’s metabolism, causing unintentional weight loss, a rapid or irregular heartbeat, increased appetite and anxiety. Several health conditions can lead to hyperthyroidism, most commonly Graves’ disease.

Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) occurs when your thyroid doesn’t produce and release enough thyroid hormone into your bloodstream, slowing your metabolism. Symptoms include weight gain, fatigue, constipation, goitres, inability to tolerate cold temperatures and dry skin. It’s usually associated with particular medications, iodine deficiency, or Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an autoimmune disorder in which your body attacks healthy thyroid tissue.

IL-1

Interleukin-1 is a cytokine with potent inflammatory and immune-amplifying effects, mainly produced by macrophages during defensive reactions. 

IL-6

Interleukin-6 is a multifunctional cytokine that plays roles in chronic inflammation (closely related to chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases and cancer) and even in the cytokine storm of corona virus disease.

Interleukins

The primary function of interleukins is to modulate growth, differentiation, and activation during inflammatory and immune responses. Interleukins comprise a large group of proteins that can elicit many reactions in cells and tissues by binding to high-affinity receptors in cell surfaces.

Indigestion

Or Dyspepsia is a feeling of burning, pain, or discomfort in the digestive tract. It can result from a medical condition or lifestyle factors. Indigestion describes specific symptoms, such as abdominal pain and feeling fullness soon after you start eating, rather than a particular disease. Indigestion can also be a symptom of various digestive disorders.

Infection

An infection occurs when a microorganism enters a person’s body and causes harm. The microorganism uses that person’s body to sustain itself, reproduce, and colonise. These infectious microscopic organisms are known as pathogens and can multiply quickly. Examples of pathogens include bacteria, viruses & fungi.

Influenza (Flu)

Influenza is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system, which includes your nose, throat and lungs. Young children, older adults, pregnant women and people with chronic disease or weak immune systems are at high risk. Symptoms include fever, chills, muscle aches, cough, congestion, runny nose, headaches and fatigue. It is treated primarily with rest and fluid to let the body fight the infection on its own. In most people, it resolves on its own. But sometimes, influenza and its complications can be deadly. 

Innate immune system

Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the defence system with which you were born. It protects you against all antigens. During the first critical hours and days of exposure to a new pathogen, we rely on our innate immune system to protect us from infection. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers form the first line of defence in the immune response.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) 

IFN-γ, or type II interferon, is a cytokine that is critical for innate and adaptive immunity against viral, some bacterial and protozoan infections. IFN-γ is an important activator of macrophages and inducer of major histocompatibility complex class II molecule expression.

Interleukin-17 (IL-17, also known as IL-17A) is a key cytokine that links T cell activation to neutrophil mobilization and activation. As such, IL-17 can mediate protective innate immunity to pathogens or contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, such as psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis.

Interleukin-17

Interleukin-17 (IL-17, also known as IL-17A) is a crucial cytokine that links T cell activation to neutrophil mobilisation and activation. IL-17 can mediate innate protective immunity to pathogens or contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, such as psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis. Numerous immune regulatory functions have been reported for IL-17 family of cytokines, due to their ability to activate many immune signaling molecules. The most notable role of IL-17 is its involvement in inducing and mediating proinflammatory responses. IL-17 is commonly associated with allergic responses.

Irritable bowel syndrome

(IBS) affects the large intestine. It is a group of intestinal symptoms that can include abdominal cramping, diarrhoea, constipation, bloating, and gas.  It is a chronic condition that you’ll need to manage long term. Only a small number of people with IBS have severe signs and symptoms. You can control the symptoms by managing diet, lifestyle and stress. More-severe symptoms can be treated with medication and counselling.

Ischemia

Ischemia is a condition in which blood flow is restricted or reduced in a part of the body, causing a lack of oxygen. It can happen in your brain, legs, heart, kidneys, or other body areas. It usually is caused by build-up or blockages in your arteries. It can lead to life-threatening problems like a heart attack or stroke.

Jaundice

is a condition in which the skin, whites of the eyes and mucous membranes turn yellow because of a high level of bilirubin, a yellow-orange bile pigment. Jaundice has many causes, including hepatitis, gallstones and tumours. Reasons: A small number of red blood cells in your body die each day and are replaced by new ones. The liver removes the old blood cells. This creates bilirubin. The liver helps break down bilirubin so the body can remove it through the stool.

Leukotrienes

Leukotrienes are chemicals your body releases when you come into contact with something you’re allergic to. They can cause coughing, extra mucus and fluid in your chest and throat and inflammation or swelling in your airway.

Lysosome

Lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. They break down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.

Macrophages

Specialized white blood cell that detects, surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells. In addition, they can also present antigens to T cells and initiate inflammation by releasing molecules (known as cytokines) that activate other cells. Macrophages migrate to and circulate within almost every tissue, patrolling for pathogens or eliminating dead cells. 

Natural killer cells

Natural killer cells protect the body against disease. They are immune cells with granules (small particles) with enzymes that can kill virally infected cells, eliminate tumour cells and detect and control early signs of cancer. They form part of the innate immune system and respond quickly to various pathological challenges. Specialised NK cells are also found in the placenta and may play an important role in pregnancy. 

Neutrophils

Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell and are the first line of defence against foreign invaders and infection. These cells are extremely helpful in defending the body but can damage the body’s tissue when overactive.

Mononucleosis

It is often called the kissing disease. It is a contagious viral infection causes by mono, a herpes virus called Epstein-Barr. It is mostly spread through saliva. Other viruses also cause mono. You can get it through kissing, by sharing a glass or food utensils with someone who has mono. Symptoms include extreme fatigue, fever and body aches. All the signs and symptoms are more prevalent if you’re a teen or young adult. Young children usually have few symptoms, and the infection often goes undiagnosed. . It isn’t as contagious as some infections, such as the common cold.

Multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease that affects the central nervous system, which is the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. This can lead to a wide range of symptoms throughout the body. It is not possible to predict how multiple sclerosis (MS) will progress in any individual. The immune system attacks the protective sheath (myelin) that covers nerve fibres and causes communication problems between your brain and the rest of your body. Eventually, the disease can cause permanent damage or deterioration of the nerves. Signs and symptoms of MS vary widely and depend on the amount of nerve damage and which nerves are affected. Some people have mild symptoms, such as blurred vision and numbness, and tingling in the limbs. In severe cases, a person may lose the ability to walk independently, vision loss, while others experience long periods of remission without new symptoms. There’s no known cure for multiple sclerosis.

Nitric oxide

Nitric oxide production is essential for overall health because it allows blood, nutrients and oxygen to travel to every part of your body effectively and efficiently. Poor nitric oxide production results in endothelium dysfunction, which can contribute to atherosclerosis, high blood pressure and other risk factors for heart disease. It can be made from the amino acid L-arginine with the help of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase. It can be synthesised from sweat nitrates by our skin or derived from dietary nitrates in our food.

Nocturia 

Nocturia is a condition that causes you to wake up to urinate at night. This can be thought of as nocturnal urinary frequency — having to urinate more often at night. This condition becomes more common as people age and occurs in men and women, sometimes for different reasons. It can be common for most people to wake up once at night to urinate, but urinating more frequently may signify something else. Nocturia can be associated with daytime urinary frequency or occur by itself. It’s essential to distinguish nocturia (urinating too frequently) from polyuria (urinating too much volume).

Oedema is a buil

up of fluid (fluid retention) in the body, which causes the affected tissue to become swollen. It used to be called dropsy. The swelling can occur in one part of the body or maybe more general, depending on the cause. Oedema can be most easily seen around the ankles after you’ve been standing (peripheral oedema). After lying down for a while, your eyes may look puffy and swollen. In severe cases, oedema can also collect in your lungs and make you short of breath.

Osteoarthritis

is the most common form of arthritis. It occurs when the protective cartilage that cushions the ends of the bones wears down over time. Although osteoarthritis can damage any joint, the disorder most commonly affects joints in your hands, knees, hips and spine.

Osteoporosis

causes bones to become so weak and brittle that a fall or mild stresses such as bending over or coughing can cause a fracture. Osteoporosis-related fractures most commonly occur in the hip, wrist or spine. Bone is a living tissue that is constantly being broken down and replaced. Osteoporosis occurs when the creation of new bone doesn’t keep up with the loss of old bone. The disease often progresses without symptoms or pain and is not found until bones fracture.

Oxidative stress

Oxidative stress is an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the ability of the body to counteract or detoxify their harmful effects through neutralisation by antioxidants. Your body produces free radicals during metabolic processes. When too many free radicals are produced, they can impair cell regeneration and repair, leading to accelerated ageing and the development of certain diseases over time.

Parkinson’s disease

A neurodegenerative disorder that predominately affects dopamine-producing (“dopaminergic”) neurons in a specific brain area. It is a brain disorder that causes unintended or uncontrollable movements, such as shaking, stiffness, and difficulty with balance and coordination. Symptoms usually begin gradually and worsen over time. As the disease progresses, people may have difficulty walking and talking.

Pathogenesis

Pathogenesis is the process by which a disease or disorder develops. It can include factors which contribute not only to the onset of the disease or disorder, but also to its progression and maintenance.

Phagocytosis

or phagocytic activities is the process by which phagocytes, including macrophages, neutrophils and monocytes, engulf and kill invading pathogens, remove foreign particles, and clear cell debris.

Piles

Haemorrhoids are swollen veins in your anus and lower rectum, similar to varicose veins. Haemorrhoids can develop inside the rectum (internal haemorrhoids) or under the skin around the anus (external haemorrhoids).

Platelet

A platelet is a tiny, disc-shaped piece of cell that is found in the blood and spleen. Platelets are pieces of large cells in the bone marrow called megakaryocytes. They help form blood clots to slow or stop bleeding and to help wounds heal.

PMS

Premenstrual syndrome is a combination of symptoms that refers to changes in mood and emotions, physical health, and behaviour. It develops between ovulation and the start of the period until a few days after your period. Premenstrual symptoms include bloating, headaches, and moodiness, impacting everyday life and regular activities.

Rheumatoid arthritis

is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder that primarily affects your joints. Unlike the wear-and-tear damage of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis affects the lining of your joints, causing a painful swelling that eventually results in bone erosion and joint deformity. The inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis can also damage other body parts, including the skin, eyes, lungs, heart and blood vessels. 

Prostaglandins

Prostaglandins are hormone-like substances the body produces in response to injury or illness. They are part of the inflammatory response, the body’s natural mechanism for healing. Prostaglandins participate in a wide range of body functions, such as the modulation of inflammation, the contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscle, the dilation and constriction of blood vessels and the control of blood pressure. Prostaglandins are derived from a chemical called arachidonic acid by the action of COX isoenzymes.

Rotavirus

Rotavirus is a contagious virus that causes nausea and diarrhea. It is the leading cause of severe infectious diarrhea in children. Some babies and children may have diarrhea so severe that they may lose too much water (dehydration).

Osteoarthritis

also known as a degenerative joint disease (DJD), is the most common type of arthritis. Inflammation and injury to the joint cause the protective cartilage that cushions the ends of the bones to wear down over time. It includes bony changes, tendons and ligaments deterioration and cartilage breakdown, resulting in pain, swelling, and joint deformity. Although osteoarthritis can damage any joint, the disorder most commonly affects joints in your hands, knees, hips and spine.

Prostrate

Prostrate is growing along the ground – A plant with horizontal shoots close to the ground and may take root in the growth process. Prostrate herbs can be used to cover large areas of exposed soil.

Psoriasis

is a chronic autoimmune skin disease that leads to a rapid buildup of your skin cells, causing skin surface scaling. It appears as a rash with itchy, scaly patches, most commonly on the knees, elbows, trunk and scalp.  Typical psoriatic scales are whitish-silver and develop in thick, red patches. However, on darker skin tones, they can also appear more purplish, dark brown with greyscales. Sometimes, these patches will crack and bleed. It can be painful, interfere with sleep and make it hard to concentrate. The condition tends to go through cycles, flaring for a few weeks or months, then subsiding for a while. Common triggers in people with a genetic predisposition to psoriasis include infections, cuts or burns, and certain medications.

Scleroderma

Chronic hardening and tightening of the skin and connective tissues. It is a rare autoimmune disease in which normal tissue is replaced with thick and stiff tissue with extra collagen, which can lead to swelling and pain. It most often affects the skin and many other body parts.

Scurvy

Scurvy is a disease caused by a serious vitamin C deficiency. Not eating enough fruits and vegetables is the main cause of the disease. Left untreated, scurvy can lead to anaemia, exhaustion, spontaneous bleeding, bleeding gums, ulceration of the gums, loosened teeth, bleeding under the skin, limb pain, and swelling. 

Sinusitis

A seasonal allergy, or allergic rhinitis, causes inflammation inside your nose, affecting your eyes, skin, and roof of the mouth. It results when your immune system attacks a typically harmless substance you encounter in the environment. In the case of seasonal hay fever, these include grass, tree, weed pollens, and outdoor moulds.

Skin ulcer

Skin ulcers are round, open sores usually resulting from poor circulation, injury or pressure. They range in severity and are usually minor injuries on the skin. In severe cases, ulcers can become deep wounds that extend through muscle tissue, exposing bones and joints.

Stromal cells

Stromal cells, or mesenchymal stromal cells, are differentiating cells found in abundance within bone marrow but can also be seen all around the body. Stromal cells can become connective tissue cells (supporting tissue that surrounds other tissues and organs) of any organ, for example in the uterine mucosa (endometrium), prostate, bone marrow, lymph node and the ovary.

Superficial venous disease

Occurs when the valves in the veins do not function correctly. It causes the blood to build up in the veins and leads to swelling. Over time, the increased pressure of the additional blood may lead to uncomfortable symptoms of this condition.

T Regulatory cells

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a specialised subpopulation of T cells that act to suppress the immune response, thereby maintaining homeostasis and self-tolerance. It has been shown that Tregs can inhibit T cell proliferation and cytokine production and play a critical role in preventing autoimmunity.

T helper 17 (Th17)

Th17 cells play a role in host defense against extracellular pathogens, particularly at the mucosal and epithelial barriers, but aberrant activation has been linked to the pathogenesis of various autoimmune diseases.

Tumour

An abnormal tissue mass that forms when cells group together, grow and divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumours may be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer). Benign tumours may grow large but do not spread into or invade nearby tissues or other parts of the body. Tumours can affect bones, skin, tissue, organs and glands. Cancerous or malignant tumours can be life-threatening.

Ulcers

Stomach ulcers are open sores or raw areas in the stomach lining or small intestine. They occur when the protective mucus that lines the stomach loses its effectiveness. Stomach ulcers are a type of peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcers are any ulcers that affect both the stomach and small intestines. Stomach ulcers occur when the thick layer of mucus that protects your stomach from digestive juices is reduced. This allows the digestive acids to eat away at the tissues that line the stomach, causing an ulcer.

Vasodilation

Vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels due to the relaxation of the blood vessel’s muscular walls, increasing blood flow and lowering blood pressure. It occurs naturally in your body in response to triggers such as low oxygen levels, lack of nutrients, and temperature increases. Vasodilation causes inflamed areas of the body to appear red or warm.

Varicocele

An enlargement of the veins within the loose bag of skin that holds the testicles (scrotum). These veins transport oxygen-depleted blood from the testicles. A varicocele occurs when blood pools in the veins rather than circulating efficiently out of the scrotum. A varicocele may cause poor development of a testicle, low sperm production or other problems that may lead to infertility. They may cause discomfort or pain but often result in no symptoms or complications. 

Varicose veins

are twisted, enlarged veins. Any vein close to the skin’s surface (superficial) can become varicose. Varicose veins can happen anywhere in the body but are more common in the legs. That’s because standing and walking increase the pressure in the veins of the lower body. Varicose veins are not considered a severe medical condition. But, they can be uncomfortable and can lead to more serious problems. And, because they may be very noticeable, they may cause people to feel uncomfortable or embarrassed.

Virus

A Virus consists of a protein coat, called a capsid, that surrounds core genetic material, either DNA or RNA. Viruses are unable to replicate without a host cell. Therefore, viruses must infect cells to survive and use them to make copies of themselves. In this process, they can kill these cells and cause damage to the host organism, which is why viral infections can make people ill.

Vitamin C

Ascorbic acid is a water-soluble vitamin. It dissolves in water and is delivered to the body’s tissues but is not well stored. Therefore daily intake is essential. It controls infections and healing wounds and is a powerful antioxidant that can neutralise harmful free radicals. It is needed to make collagen, a fibrous protein in connective tissue that is weaved throughout various systems in the body, including the nervous, immune, bone, cartilage, blood, and others. The vitamin helps make several hormones and chemical messengers in the brain and nerves.

Wasting 

A Virus consists of a protein coat, called a capsid, that surrounds core genetic material, either DNA or RNA. Viruses are unable to replicate without a host cell. Therefore, viruses must infect cells to survive and use them to make copies of themselves. In this process, they can kill these cells and cause damage to the host organism, which is why viral infections can make people ill.

It is a prion or protein disease. It affects deer, elk, reindeer, sika deer, moose, and other members of the cervid family. It is similar to mad cow disease in cows, scrapie in sheep and goats, and Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease in people.  ‌It can take over a year before the animal infected develops symptoms. Symptoms include severe weight loss, stumbling, listlessness, drooling, high thirst or urination, drooping ears, and lack of fear.

Wilson disease

Wilson disease is a rare genetic condition when your body accumulates too much copper, especially in the liver and brain. Your body needs a small amount of copper from food to stay healthy, but without treatment, Wilson’s disease can lead to high copper levels that cause life-threatening organ damage. Wilson disease is passed on from parents to their children. It requires a copy of the abnormal gene from each parent.